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Review Article

Exploring the Tumor Microenvironment: Macrophages and PD-1 Checkpoint Inhibitors

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Open Access
Article Type Review Article
Subject Medicine Group
OCLC JBRES Record
Liu X, Lu Y, Wei J, Liu H, Huang J, Ding Y
Issue: Volume6-Issue11
Pages: 1622-1670
Received: 2025-10-15
Accepted: 2025-11-07
Published: 2025-11-08

Abstract

This review provides an in-depth examination of the tumor microenvironment, macrophages, and PD-1 checkpoint inhibitors. It delves into the fundamental aspects of the tumor microenvironment and macrophages, discussing the evolution of key concepts, the involvement of macrophages in tumor progression, and their interactions with tumor cells. The historical development of PD-1 checkpoint inhibitors is explored, detailing their discovery, early clinical trials, and initial challenges. Current insights into macrophages within the tumor microenvironment are presented, including their polarization, mechanisms of immunosuppression, and diagnostic techniques. The clinical application of PD-1 inhibitors is reviewed, encompassing therapeutic strategies, comparative efficacy across various cancers, and management of side effects. Additionally, the paper addresses technological advancements in tumor microenvironment research, future directions, and ongoing controversies, aiming to provide a comprehensive overview to inform further research and clinical applications.

FullText HTML FullText PDF DOI: 10.37871/jbres2219 Crossmark

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© 2025 Liu X, et al. Distributed under Creative Commons CC-BY 4.0 Creative CommonsAttribution

How to cite this article

Liu X, Lu Y, Wei J, Liu H, Huang J , Ding Y. Exploring the Tumor Microenvironment: Macrophages and PD-1 Checkpoint Inhibitors. J Biomed Res Environ Sci. 2025 Nov 08; 6(11): 1662-1670. doi: 10.37871/jbres2219, Article ID: JBRES2219, Available at: https://www.jelsciences.com/articles/jbres2219.pdf

Subject area(s)

ImmunotherapyImmunologyCancer

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